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雅思阅读考试中的同义词转换

2017-3-29来源：新航道作者：广州新航道学校

摘要：做过雅思真题的学生都知道，雅思考试的一大特点就是同义转换，这在阅读中尤为明显。今天广州新航道小编和大家先来讨论同义转换在雅思阅读中的应用，以及同义替换在写作中的应用！

我们随便翻开雅思剑桥真题中的阅读题，都可以发现题干和原文中一些表达的同义转换现象，例如，剑11 Test1 Reading Passage 1的第四道阅读题题干为"The fact that vertical farms would need artificial light is a disadvantage."，这句话对应的原文为"A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light."。就这一句话里面我们就可以找出三处同义转换现象：
“vertical farms”对应"vertical farming"
“need”对应"require"
“disadvantage”对应"drawback"
那么雅思阅读中为什么会有那么多同义转换现象？最直接的原因是为了考察学生对于题干原文的理解能力。那这也只能解释阅读中同义转换现象，但其实我们看一下雅思官方指南给的范围，里面也出现了很多同义替换的现象。实际上，同义替换并不是雅思阅读或写作中特有的现象，而是英语语言的一个特点。那么英语中为什么会有这么多同义替换的现象？我们从国外的一些相关书籍当中可以找到答案：主要是为了避免重复单调。
“
J. Hodges and M. Whitten在 Harbrace College Handbook中提到“Never use the same word or write the same thing twice in a sentence unless you are repeating intentionally for emphasis or for clarity. ”（除非你是在有意重复以表强调或是避免歧义，否则不要在一个句子中不要重复使用同样的词语或者写同样的东西）。
“
R. Graves和A. Hodge在The Reader Over Your Shoulder一书中告诫学生，“The same word should not be so often used in the same sentence or paragraph that it become tedious”（同样的词语在同一个句子或同一段落当中不应该使用太多，会使文章变得很无聊）。当然我们还可以其他的书籍中找到类似的表述，这里就不再列举。  
那么英语中避免重复的一种很重要的手段就是同义替换，同义替换的一种重要的手段就是使用同义词。那么英语中为什么会有这么同义词呢？这需要从英语英语词汇来源说起，英语词汇的来源主要有三个：
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第一是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇，这是英语民族自身的词汇，这类词汇的特点是短小、具体、常用、口语化，例如ask, fire, small；
第二是法语词汇。这是因为在诺曼征服时期，英格兰被法国人所统治，在当时法语是贵族的语言，所以这类词的特点是庄重文化、正式，例如前面三个盎克鲁撒克逊单词对应的词汇是question, flame, petite；
第三是拉丁语和希腊词汇。拉丁语词汇最初进入英语是在罗马入侵时期，在凯撒大帝统治英格兰后，基督教开始传入英格兰，而当时基督教的语言是拉丁语。拉丁语词汇和法语词汇大量进入英语词汇的一个重要的时期是在文艺复兴时期，当时建筑、艺术、文学等学科的兴起，需要大量新的表达，而当时的人们借用了希腊语和拉丁语中的词汇。因此，这类词汇的特点一般是多音节、抽象、学术。前面提到的三个单词来自希腊拉丁语的词汇为interrogate, conflagration, diminutive。
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当然，英语的同义词，一部分是因为地域的差异，会出现不同的变体，如美式英语、英式英语、澳大利亚英语等。例如地域差异而出现的同义词有，英式英语中的film, autumn, lorry, sidewalk到美式英语就成了movie, fall, truck, pavement。一部分同义词的出现时因为英语吸收了其他国家语言的表达，来表示这些国家或地区所特有的东西，例如同时指草原，但是英语中却有不同的说法，有steppe，来自俄语，专指东欧到西伯利亚的大草原；pampas，来自西班牙语，专指南美的大草原，prairie，来自法语，指北美大草原。还有用cosmonaut来指前苏联宇航员，而不用astronaut。

在了解了背景之后呢，接下来我们重点看同义转换在雅思阅读中的具体体现。
一、近义词
相对于名词，英语中形容词和动词的近义词可谓是不胜枚举。备考时学生可以从哪几个方面掌握近义词改写了？
首先，形容词的同义改写意思上最接近原词。
(1)形容词（题目）→ 形容词（原文）
e.g.
① A description of an early timekeeping invention affected by cold temperatures. （C8T1P1 A Chronicle of Timekeeping，段落信息匹配题）
【原文】Although these devices performed satisfactorily around the Mediterranean, they could not always be depended on in the cloudy and often freezing weather of northern Europe.
② A pilot entering Class C airspace is flying over an average-sized city.（C8T1P2 Air Traffic Control in the Air，判断题）
【原文】Three other types of airspace, Class D, C and B, govern the vicinity of airports. These correspond roughly to small municipal, medium-sized metropolitan and major metropolitan airports respectively.
这类题目和原文当中同是形容词的改写难度倒不大，学生平时记单词时多积累近义词，面对这种类型的近义词改写便一目了然。但面对命题者“别出心裁”设计的另一种形容词的同义改写，考生得格外注意，即题目中是定语从句，在原文中对应的是形容词。
(2)定语从句（题目）→ 形容词（原文）
e.g.
The sense of smell may involve response to chemicals which do not smell, in addition to obvious odours. （C8T2P3 The Meaning and Power of Smell，填空题）
【原文】Researchers have still to decide whether smell is one sense or two – one responding to odours proper and the other registering odourless chemicals in the air.
如例子所示，题目中需要填写一个名词，这个名词后有一个定语从句which do not smell修饰。再由in addition to并列关系可推知所填名词与obvious odours并列且意思相反。不难在原文中定位到句子，只是居中找不到一模一样的表达，而是被odour后接否定后缀－less改写而来。
此外，动词的同义改写也比较多，但动词的同义改写在意思上的对应稍抽象一些。
例如C10T1P3中有一道选择题
In the last paragraph, the writer suggests that it is important for employees to B feel that their contributions are valued. 在原文中对应的句子是Leaders should encourage everyone to contribute and simultaneously assure all concerned that every recommendation is important to making the right decision and will be given full attention.
原文中的be given full attention和选项中的be valued之间的改写比较抽象，并不是十分对应的同义词。当然，动词的同义改写中也不乏意思相对精准对应的近义词，例如change-alter, burn out-exhausted, invest-cost, limit-minimise等。
另外，在雅思阅读中名词的同义改写学生一般比较熟悉，例如：farming-agriculture, categories-types, adversity-difficulty, achievement-attainment, documentation-record。而且正因为名词的同义词、近义词比较少，所以名词一般是用来帮助定位的。
二 、上下义词
上下义关系指的是两个词之间其中一个包含了另一个词的意义这样一种语言现象，例如fruit和apple, pineapple。在雅思阅读中，段落标题匹配题、段落信息匹配题和句子匹配题这些高度同义改写的题目中高频出现上下义词之间的同义改写，或称之为“归纳”，即原文中出现的是下义词，题目或选项中给出的是上义词。
e.g.
① Reports of experiences during meditation indicated
B. the need to create a suitable environment for telepathy. （C8T1P1 Telepathy，句子匹配题）
【原文】Reports of experiences had by people during meditation led parapsychologists to suspect that telepathy might involve ‘signals’ passing between people that were so faint that they were usually swamped by normal brain activity. In this case, such signals might be more easily detected by those experiencing meditation-like tranquility in a relaxing ‘whole field’ of light, sound and warmth.
② iv. Setting altitude zones （C8T1P2 Air Traffic Control in the USA，段落标题匹配题）
【原文】To meet this challenge, the following elements were put into effect. First, ATC extends over virtually the entire United States. In general, from 365m above the ground and higher, the entire country is blanketed by controlled airspace. In certain areas, mainly near airports, controlled airspace extends down to 215m above the ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all the way down to the surface. Controlled airspace is that airspace in which FAA regulations apply. Elsewhere, in uncontrolled airspace, pilots are bound by fewer regulations. In this way, the recreational pilot who simply wishes to go flying for a while without all the restrictions imposed by the FAA has only to stay in uncontrolled airspace, below 365m, while the pilot who does want the protection afforded by ATC can easily enter the controlled airspace.
③ an explanation of the importance of geographyi in the development of the calendar in farming communities （C8T1P1 A Chronicle of Timekeeping，段落信息匹配题）
【原文】Before the invention of artificial light, the moon had greater social impact. And, for those living near the equator in particular, its waxing and waning was more conspicuous than the passing of the seasons. Hence, the calendars that were developed at the low latitudes were influenced more by the lunar cycle than by the solar year. In more northern climes, however, where seasonal agriculture was practised, the solar year became more crucial. As the Roman Empire expanded northward, it organised its activity chart for the most part around the solar year.
例①中  like引导出一个例子tranquility in a relaxing ‘whole field’ of light, sound and warmth，其中灯光、声音和温度都属于a suitable environment的组成成分；
例②中  分说controlled airspace从365米往上，uncontrolled airspace在365米往下，概括起来，它们都属于altitude zone；
例③中  near the equator…at the low latitudes…In more northern climes都属于对geography的详细描述。
三、 语境中的积极与消极
学生经常苦恼词汇量太小导致无法看懂阅读中的同义改写，其实我们有时可以借鉴语境中的积极和消极表达也能推敲出答案。如下面例子所示：
例①题目中Researchers…agree on问“研究者都赞同什么”，属于积极语境，可以同义改写成alike，又因为句子中的谓语动词concur的前缀con-表示“共同，一致，一起”，所以不难定位到当句再进行解题。
例②原段落首句中的undervalued合成词中的under和小标题选项里面的not appreciate都属于消极语境。
例③原段落首二句中提及的人们的观点是incomplete part和小标题选项中的oversimplified均表达消极意义。例④中害虫对农药有resistance和选项中的no longer respond to pesticides也都表示消极语境。对于语境中的积极与消极表达，考生不必细究这几个词之间是否为精准的近义表达，只需看到语境是否都属于积极表达或消极表达。
e.g.
① Researchers with differing attitudes towards telepathy agree on E. the significance of the ganzfeld experiments.（C8T1P3 Telepathy，句子匹配题）
【原文】Sceptics and advocates alike do concur on one issue, however: that the most impressive evidence so far has come from the so-called 'ganzfeld' experiments.
② vi. Why our sense of smell is not appreciated? （C8T2P3 The Meaning and Power of Smell，段落标题匹配题）
【原文】In spite of its importance to our emotional and sensory lives, smell is probably the most undervalued sense in many cultures. The reason often given for…
③ v. An oversimplified view
【原文】Many people thing that… This is a very incomplete part of the picture. （C8T1P2 Air Traffic Control in the USA，段落标题匹配题）
④ The Food and Agriculture Organization has counted more than 300 agricultural pests which
A. are no longer responding to most pesticides in use. (C8T4P2 Biological Control of Pests，选择题)
【原文】According to a recent study by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), more than 300 species of agriculture pests have developed resistance to a wide range of potent chemicals.
四 、逻辑（转折/否定/因果/比较）
在阅读的填空题、判断题等题型中我们常常利用句中的逻辑回原文定位和解题，常见到的逻辑有转折、否定、因果、比较。一般而言，题目中还有以上逻辑，我们回原文定位时可以找到相对应逻辑的同义改写表达，当然判断题中的NOT GIVEN信息除外。下面我们一一来看看在阅读中如何利用这些逻辑。
（1）因果
题目中表示因果关系的连词或动词回原文定位时一般都能找到类似的表达，例如：
例①中题目中的as a result of和原文中的result in属于同义改写，谈及了原因，所以这道题便不会判断NOT GIVEN，只需判断原因是否一致了。
例②中题目中出现了because，根据题目中的专业名词Nordic可以快速定位到句子，句中出现了同样表示因果关系的连词therefore。定位句缩句后主干Those…therefore had to be discarded说明原因在前一句，只需核查原因是否一致。
e.g.
① The FAA was created as a result of the introduction of the jet engine. （C8T1P2 Air Traffic Control in the USA，判断题）
【原文】An accident that occurred in the skies over the Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)…
② Problems in Nordic countries were excluded because they are outside the European Economic Community. （C7T3P3，判断题）
【原文】Their initial task was to decide which of the many forest problems of concern to Europe involved the largest number of countries and might be the subject of joint action. Those confined to particular geographical areas, such as countries bordering the Mediterranean or the Nordic countries therefore had to be discarded.

常见的因果关系表达

因

果

because (of), for, as, since, in that, as account of, with, when

be responsible /attributable to

so (that), therefore, thereby, as a result, hence, thus,   consequently

cause, lead to, give rise to, result in, render, be responsible   for

result/derive/originate/initiate/stem from,

 

（2）否定
否定语义的同义改写主要体现为否定前缀、后缀和否定词之间的替换。如：
例①所示，由题干信息回原文中定位不难，但此题考查的并非考生对主句的理解，而是对contribute to和状语中engender之间的改写，以及disorder和imbalance两个带否定前缀的词之间的替换。
例②a中是否定词few…spectacular和unspectacular之间的同义改写。例②b中否定词do not have同义改写成表示否定意义的词组lack of.
①否定前缀、后缀
The use of pesticides has contributed to
B. an imbalance in many ecologies around the world. （C8T4P2 Biological control of pests，选择题）
【原文】Apart from engendering widespread ecological disorders, pesticides have contributed to the emergence of a new breed of chemical-resistant, highly lethal superbugs.
②否定词
a. The results of most other teachers using this method have been unspectacular. （C7T1P3 Educating Psyche， 带选项的总结填空题）
【原文】… few teachers are able to emulate the spectacular results of Lozanov and his associates.
b. Children of average ability seem to need more direction from teachers because they do not have internal regulation. （C10T2P2 Gifted children and learning，句子填空题）
【原文】… compared with more average-ability or older pupils, for whom external regulation by the teacher often compensated for lack of internal regulation.

常见的否定表达

否定前缀

否定后缀

否定词

a-

contra-

dis-

in-/il-/im-/ir-

un-

anti-

counter-

de-

non-

under-

-less

-free

-proof

半否定词：hardly, scarcely, barely, little   few, seldom

全否定词：not, never, none, nobody,   neither, instead

fail to, refuse, reject, miss, absence of, lack of

双重否定：not fail to, not illegal, not   uncommon
       




（3） 转折
转折关系表达词一般就是让步转折词之间的改写，例如：
例①中despite-although，
例②中的however-yet。
①The need for transport is growing, despite technological developments. （C10T1P2 European Transport Systems 1990-2010，判断题）
【原文】Although modern information technologies can reduce the demand for physical transport by facilitating teleworking and teleservices, the requirement for transport continues to increase.
②However, in historical times artists such as Leonardo were happy to instruct assistants to produce copies of their work and… （C10T2P3 Museums of fine art and their public，带选项的总结填空题）
【原文】Yet it has always been possible to make very accurate facsimiles of pretty well any fine art work. The seven surviving versions of Mona Lisa bear witness to the fact that in the 16th century, artists seemed perfectly content to assign the reproduction of their creations to their workshop apprentices as regular ‘bread and butter’ work.

常见的转折关系表达

让步

转折

although, though, even tough

despite, in spite of

but, however, nevertheless, yet
（4）比较
比较关系表达之间的同义改写主要体现在表示比较关系的连词、比较级之间的改写。如：
例①中rather than和than之间的替换，
例②中比较级的表达。
① We can deduce that the Little Ice Age was a time of climatic shifts rather than of consistent freezing. (C8T2P2 The Little Ice Age，带选项的总结填空题)
【原文】The Little Ice Age was far from a deep freeze, however; rather an irregular seesaw of rapid climatic shits…
② There is a wider range of achievement amongst English pupils studying math than amongst their Japanese counterparts. (C8T4P1 Land of the Rising Sum, 判断题)
【原文】Large sample international comparisons of pupils' attainments since the 1960s have established that not only did Japanese pupils at age 13 have better scores of average attainment, but there was also a larger proportion of ‘low’ attainers in England, where, incidentally, the variation in attainment scores was much greater.

常见的转折关系表达

让步

转折

although, though, even tough

despite, in spite of

but, however, nevertheless, yet

五 、主被动的替换
例 1：
题干：The consumption of fossil fuel would be cut because agricultural vehicles would be unnecessary.(C11,T1, Q4）
原文：It would drastically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping.
我们从上的例子可以看出题干和原文中意思相近的表达时be cut和reduce。题干要表达的意思是，化石燃料的消耗会“被”削减，而原文说的是，这会大量减少化石燃料的使用，由于主语的转换，相应的谓语动词也会发生改变，这一组同意转换的特点的主动与被动之间的转换。这一类的同义转换可以归纳为“A + 动词 + B”与“B + be + 动词的过去分词 + A”之间的转换。这一点从下面的例子也可以看出来：
例2：
题干：Some damage to food crops is caused by climate change.(C11,T1, Q11）
原文：However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their roll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops.
原文说的是气候变化摧毁了很多作物，而题干则表达的是作物的摧毁是由气候变化引起的，这也是因为主语的转换而造成了主被动之间的转换。
六 、正话反说
例 3：
题干：Vertical farming will make plants less likely to be affected by infectious diseases.(C11,T1, Q13）
原文：The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are required at the agricultural interface.
以上的例子，题干说的是垂直农业会是作物不太可能受到传染性疾病的影响；而原文说的是垂直农业会大大减少传染性疾病的发生。“不太可能”（less likely to）的对立面其实就是“减少”（reduce），这也是雅思中同义转换常用的另一种手段。
类似的例子还有：
例 4：
题干：The effects of geo-engineering may not be long-lasting.(C11,T1, Q37）
原文：I think  all of us agree that if we were to end geo-engineering on a given day, then the planet would return to its pre-engineering condition very rapidly, and probably within ten to twenty years.
从例子中我们可以看到，题干表达的是地球工程的影响may not be long-lasting；而对应到原文里却成了very rapidly。题干和原文表达的意思是一样的，不过一个是肯定，一个是否定加反义词。
七 概括词
概括词指范围更大、意思更含糊的词，例如任何东西都可以用thing或stuff来概括。概括词在雅思阅读同义转换中的应用遵循这种规律：原文是更为具体的体现，而题干则用概括性词语替代，这可从以下的例子看出：
例 5：
题干：Human beings are responsible for some of the destruction to food-producing land.(C11,T1, Q9）
原文：At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices.
我们可以看出原文说的是人类给土地所造成的伤害，而题干则用了destruction这个词来替代原文中的具体伤害。
例 6：
题干：Experts' definition of migration tend to vary according to their area of study. (C11,T3, Q15）
原文：Burt migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animal they study.
从上面的例子可以看出，原文说的是what sorts of animal they study（他们所研究的哪一种动物），但到了题干却成为了 their area of study（他们所研究的领域）。我们知道原文说的是具体的一种研究领域，而题干却用概括性词语“研究领域”来替代。

关于雅思考试中阅读部分的同义转换，就讲到这里，内文较长，建议同学们收藏仔细研读，关于写作部分的同义转换，咱们下回见分晓！

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